Academic writing

University studies involve writing a wide variety of texts for different audiences and purposes. This page provides advice for the different stages of the academic writing process at JYU.

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Characteristics of academic and scientific texts

At university, you gradually learn to use the language and conventions of academic communication. This happens through reading texts in your field, writing study-related texts, and engaging in discussions during teaching, supervision, and group work. When moving from one academic culture to another, it is important to reflect on established practices and observe how things are done in the new environment. No one knows how to write academically at the beginning of their studies. Academic writing is a skill that develops over time – through practice, reading, and active participation in academic contexts.

There is no single, universal definition of what makes a text academic. Different disciplines and academic traditions may value different features or expectations. When studying at JYU, it is therefore important to get to know the kinds of academic texts that are written in your discipline and what is considered good academic practice in your field.

The following section introduces key characteristics of academic texts and helps you recognise these features in your own writing.

Academic writing can be seen as part of an ongoing conversation between researchers. When you write, you engage with ideas and findings presented by other researchers and build your own thinking on them. This means referring to previous research while also developing your own perspective. Academic writing can therefore be seen as a dialogue with other researchers: you relate your work to existing research and take into account your readers, who expect to learn something new from your text.

When writing, ask yourself:

For what purpose am I writing this text?
How does my text benefit the reader?
How does my text relate to previous research?
What new insights do I bring to the discussion?

In academic and scientific texts, you often summarize, analyze, or comment on information from sources you have read and data you have collected. Such texts contain arguments. An argument is a claim that is supported by evidence and logical reasoning rather than personal opinion.

Because academic writing is based on argumentation, every claim, interpretation, conclusion or methodological choice you make must be justified. Your justifications should be based on research and logical reasoning, not on personal opinions, feelings or persuasive language. Academic writing allows for the writer’s own voice, but this voice must be grounded in research and open to critical evaluation. In practice, writers present their arguments by using sources openly and carefully.

Claims made in academic texts are supported, for example, by

previous research results,
the views of researchers in the field,
results obtained using appropriate research methods.

When writing, ask yourself:

Have I presented my claims clearly and are they justified?
Am I basing my claims on reliable information or only on my own opinion?
How do my own observations or ideas relate to previous research?

Read more:

Sources make scientific texts credible and verifiable. They allow readers to trace the origin of information and evaluate it. Using sources shows that you are familiar with research in your field and can relate your own observations and interpretations to existing knowledge. Citing sources is an essential part of academic writing, because it makes your work part of the wider research conversation.

Acknowledging your source within the text is called an in-text citation, and the list of sources at the end of the text is called References. This list includes only the sources that have been cited in the text. There are several different ways to format an in-text citation or a reference list in practice. Citation styles are often specific to a particular field. It is important that you find out what your department’s citation style is and follow it consistently. You will find JYU’s field-specific citation guidelines here.

Careful citation and referencing makes your text transparent, and it is clear to the reader whose ideas are being discussed at any given moment. Most importantly, careful citation and referencing is needed to avoid plagiarism. Plagiarism means using someone else’s words, ideas, or work without proper acknowledgement, making it appear as if they were your own. In Finland, plagiarism is considered a form of academic misconduct according to the national research integrity guidelines issued by the Finnish National Board on Research Integrity (TENK), which are followed by universities. It is therefore essential to learn the principles and practices of proper referencing so that you can use information from your sources transparently and ethically in your own writing.

The University of Jyväskylä uses Turnitin plagiarism detection software to support learning and good academic practices. In some courses, written assignments may be checked with Turnitin. Turnitin compares submitted texts with material found online, published sources, and previously submitted assignments. It can also detect similarities with text produced by AI tools. The purpose of this comparison is to help you ensure that your use of sources is transparent and properly acknowledged. Turnitin also protects your work: once submitted, your assignment may be stored in Turnitin’s comparison database, which helps prevent others from using your text without permission. When submitting a text to Turnitin, you are asked to accept the service’s terms of use, and to ensure that no personal or sensitive information is included in your submission, which is in line with the University’s data protection principles and the EU General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR).

Practical tips for using sources in the writing process:

When reading:

Make notes that help you understand and later use the information in your own writing.
Don’t copy word for word but focus on the real meaning of what you read.
Think about what the essential message is: What is the core idea you want to convey from the source?
Try to verbalize your notes in simple terms so that they become your own words.
Consider which language to use for your notes and avoid unnecessary switching between languages, as this may lead to inaccuracies or loss of meaning.
Always indicate in your notes where each idea comes from, for example by using numbering or colour-coding for different sources.

When writing:

Always cite your sources when you use someone else's research, information, or ideas.
Use up-to-date and peer-reviewed sources.
Follow the citation style of your field (e.g., APA, Chicago, MLA, Harvard).
Clearly explain to the reader how the sources support your own arguments and conclusions.

When writing, ask yourself:

Are the sources I am using reliable and up-to-date?
How do the sources I use support my own observations and arguments?
Have I cited the sources according to my department's guidelines so that the reader can verify the origin of the information?

Read more:

Information seeking:

Citing and referencing:

Academic misconduct and integrity:

Scientific texts typically follow predictable structures that help readers understand the argument. A scientific text is not a collection of separate ideas. The ideas should be connected and come in a clear and expected order. This makes the text easy to read and helps the reader follow your line of thinking and understand how you reached your conclusions.

The basic structure of academic texts is fairly consistent across many disciplines. Academic texts are constructed from sentences, paragraphs and sections rather than lists of isolated sentences. Key building blocks of academic texts are paragraphs, which develop one idea and typically include

a topic sentence that introduces the main idea,
supporting sentences that explain, analyse, or give evidence, and
concluding sentence that closes or transitions to the next idea.

The paragraphs in your text should connect to each other in a logical and coherent way. By organising your text carefully and linking ideas clearly, you show how your thoughts develop, highlight your perspective, and create a fluent, easy-to-follow text.

In addition to published academic books, essay articles, review articles and other similar academic texts, a very common and widely used model for scientific empirical research writing is the IMRD structure for journal articles (Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion). In practice, the structure may be more complex and vary depending on your field and the type of text you are writing. It is important to familiarise yourself with the expectations and guidelines used in your own discipline.

When writing, ask yourself:

Am I following the guidelines for the text type in the structure of my text?
Am I following the guidelines for my field?
Does my text progress logically from beginning to end?
Does the structure highlight my perspective on the topic?
Have I divided my text into paragraphs?
Do the paragraphs and sentences flow smoothly into each other?

Read more:

For guidance on writing a bachelor’s thesis in English, consult your thesis supervisor or study counsellor. When appropriate, you may also apply the general principles found in the master’s thesis instructions.

Academic texts follow discipline-specific conventions. They have a purpose and a direction, and they are always written for a reader. The reader’s work is made easier by using precise and unambiguous language. Academic writing is typically formal and objective, and it favors clear, general language over emotional or figurative expressions. It is important to note that academic language does not need to be unnecessarily complex: clarity is more important than using sophisticated or difficult words to impress the reader. The aim is to describe, explain, and justify ideas in a way that is accurate, transparent, and easy to understand.

Academic writing also values conciseness: ideas should be expressed as efficiently as possible without unnecessary repetition or complexity. The reader is guided from one idea to another by using cohesive devices such as repetition, pronoun reference, linking words or metatext.

Academic texts are also shaped by cultural and disciplinary expectations. Readers may come from different academic or cultural backgrounds, which influences how directly arguments should be expressed, how much background information is needed, or how cautious or assertive the language should be. By using clear, explicit language and avoiding culture-specific assumptions, you help make your text accessible to a wider readership.

If you use AI tools when drafting or editing your text, ensure that their use is permitted in the task. The final responsibility for clarity, precision, and correctness always remains with you. AI-generated language must be carefully checked, revised, and adapted to meet academic standards. For more information, see the section dedicated to the ethical use of AI tools.

When writing, ask yourself:

Am I considering the expectations of readers from different disciplines or cultural backgrounds?
Am I writing in a clear, easy-to-read style?
Am I using concepts consistently? Am I defining key concepts?
Has the language of the text been carefully revised and edited?
If I use AI tools, have I checked and polished the language carefully?

Read more:

Study-related text types at JYU

During your studies you will write many different kinds of texts, such as essays, learning diaries, reports, and theses. Each text type has its own purpose, structure, and expectations.

Below, you will find guidelines prepared by JYU for the most common types of study-related texts across different fields. If you cannot find instructions for your text type below or in your course learning environment, ask your teacher or supervisor for guidance.

Essay instructions

Learning and lecture diary

Master's thesis

Writing study-related texts as a process

Academic work, from thinking and researching to planning, writing, and rewriting, is process-oriented by nature. Academic texts are rarely completed in one go. Writing is a way of developing your thinking: as you structure your text, your understanding becomes clearer, and you often return to earlier stages to rethink and improve your ideas. Academic texts require planning, multiple drafts, and revision in order to become clear, well-argued, and academically appropriate.

Reading and writing are closely connected. You generate ideas by comparing, analysing, and reflecting on what you read, which is why it is important to read both before and during writing. Feedback and revision are also essential parts of the process. Comments from others help you view your text from the reader’s perspective and improve its clarity and structure.

Because writing develops in stages, it is important to allow enough time for drafting, revising, and finalising your text. Writing in stages also helps reduce the pressure to get started and supports better planning. No one is born a skilled writer – writing is a skill that can be learned and developed through practice. You may also sometimes work collaboratively with others.

The writing process in brief

Preparation: Plan your writing schedule, understand the task, choose and narrow your topic, and find reliable sources
Pre-writing: Read key sources, take notes in your own words, and plan your structure
First draft: Write without over-editing, focus on getting ideas down, and include references
Feedback: Ask for feedback at different stages. You can ask feedback e.g. from other students, your teacher or supervisor, your roommate, or AI tools. Focus first on content and structure, and later on language and style. Reflect critically on the feedback you receive and decide if you will follow it or not.
Editing: Improve structure, argumentation, and connections between ideas
Finalising: Check content, argumentation, structure, language and references carefully

Kaksi opiskelijaa istuu pöydän ääressä työskentelemässä läppärillä.

Writing together with others

Collaborative writing is an important skill both in academic studies and in working life. At first, co-writing may feel slow or challenging, as it requires planning, negotiation, and compromise. However, when it works well, co-writing helps you learn new perspectives, share responsibility, develop your ideas more thoroughly, and improve the overall quality of the text. You can learn a great deal about writing by working with someone else.

At the university of Jyväskylä, students may write study-related texts, such as essays or theses, in pairs or small groups. Because the final text represents the work of all authors, everyone usually receives the same grade. This makes it especially important to communicate openly, divide tasks fairly, and review each other’s work throughout the process.

Here are some practical tips that can make collaborative writing smoother and more effective:

Make sure you both understand the task. Go through the assignment together so that both writers understand the task and its requirements in the same way.
Agree on shared goals. Discuss what you want to achieve with the assignment. For example, what grade you want or how detailed you want the work to be.
Divide responsibilities. Agree who writes which parts and who checks or edits what.
Set intermediate deadlines. Decide when drafts, revisions, and final checks should be ready, so the work progresses steadily.
Talk about how you like to work. For example, whether you write best in the morning or evening, whether you like to produce a rough draft first or prefer polished text from the start.
Talk about feedback preferences. Agree on what kind of feedback you want to give and receive during the writing process, and how you will communicate suggestions or concerns.
Agree on communication channels and timing. Decide which channels you will use (e.g. phone, email, What’sApp…) and when it is appropriate to contact each other (e.g. whether evening or weekend messages are okay).
Keep in touch. Update each other on progress, ask questions, and bring up problems early.
Read each other’s parts. That way the whole text feels consistent and not like separate pieces.
Finalize it together. Revise the entire text together to check structure, logic, coherence, and academic style.
Address problems early. If collaboration becomes difficult, talk openly, and if needed, seek advice from your teacher or supervisor.

Peer feedback

During your studies, you may be asked to give feedback on another student’s text and to share your own work for comments. Showing an unfinished text to someone else can feel uncomfortable at first, especially if you are not used to it. However, peer feedback is an important academic and professional skill: it helps you read texts more critically, reflect on your own writing, and communicate your ideas more clearly.

Giving feedback to others also develops your ability to evaluate your own work. As you learn to recognize strengths and areas for improvement in someone else’s writing, you begin to notice similar patterns in your own texts. Peer feedback does not replace feedback from your teacher, but it supports your learning by helping develop independent judgement and more effective working methods.

At JYU, feedback is an essential part of academic work. Students are expected to engage in self-assessment, give and receive peer feedback, and participate in feedback discussions throughout their studies. Feedback helps you improve your texts, recognise your strengths, and set realistic goals.

Effective feedback interaction requires communication skills, an open and constructive attitude, and the ability to manage emotions, as feedback situations often involve evaluation. Constructive feedback should be polite and balanced: not too blunt, but not so cautious that no meaningful criticism is given.

Below is a link to material on constructive feedback, including practical guidance for both giving and receiving feedback.

Feedback skills

Common writing challenges – and how to overcome them

Writing at university is a multi-stage process that requires planning, drafting, revising, and managing your work over time. It is common to encounter challenges at different stages of this process, especially if you are writing in a language that is not your first language. You may feel unsure about expectations, struggle to get started, worry about your language skills, or find it difficult to bring your text to completion.

To work more efficiently, it helps to recognize your strengths as a writer and identify areas you want to develop. The following sections describe common writing challenges and offer practical strategies to help you write more smoothly and confidently.

How it may feel:

You are not sure whether your text is academic.
You worry that the reader will not understand you.
You worry about the grade.

Writing academic text starts with understanding the assignment instructions and readers’ expectations. You can also check other sections of this website for guidance on the characteristics of academic and scientific texts. In many written assignments, readers are most interested in the writer’s own thinking: how you summarize, combine, and evaluate information from sources, and what insights you draw from them.

Academic writing does not necessarily need to be complicated. On the contrary, effective academic texts are clear, precise, and concise so that readers can easily follow the writer’s thinking. Clear writing makes your ideas easier to understand, especially when obvious typos and grammatical errors are avoided.

When writing in English at JYU, correctness of language is not always the most important assessment criterion. Usually, clarity is more important than perfect accuracy. However, it is useful to pay attention to key linguistic and stylistic features of academic English, such as articles, word order, and verb forms, which help make your text easier to understand.

How to move forward:

Checklist for academic English:

Is my writing style appropriate for the task (objective, precise, evidence-based)?
Is my vocabulary appropriate for the task (e.g. formal rather than conversational, technical where needed)?
Am I using inclusive and gender‑neutral language where possible?
Is the word order in my sentences correct?
Are verb tenses used consistently?
Am I using the right prepositions?
Am I using articles (a/an/the) correctly?

How it may feel:

You are not quite sure whether you need to refer to sources in your text.
It is difficult to find suitable sources, or you do not know where to look for them.
You don't know how to connect the sources to your own thinking.
Academic writing in English places strong emphasis on the ownership of ideas. This means that writers clearly acknowledge when they are using someone else’s ideas, findings, arguments or data. When in doubt, it is usually better to cite than not to cite.

When to cite?

You should always provide a citation when you use:
- Someone else’s ideas, arguments or interpretations — whether you quote, summarize or paraphrase them.
- Research data, findings, tables, figures, or visual material (such as images or photographs) from another source
- Definitions, theories or concepts originally developed by a specific researcher.
- Direct quotations.

When not to cite?

You do not need a citation when:
- You refer to common knowledge, i.e., information that is widely known and appears in many reliable sources without citation.
- You present your own analysis, interpretations or conclusions that are not directly tied to a specific source.
- You describe your own experiences, reasoning process or research methods.
- You report your own empirical findings or data.

How to move forward:

Read the assignment instructions carefully to understand expectations
Define your own perspective and purpose for the text before searching for sources. This helps you decide what is essential and what type of sources to search for.
Start with a small number of relevant sources and expand if needed
Evaluate sources for relevance before reading in depth
Take notes in your own words and avoid word-for-word translation or copying
Look for connections between sources (similarities, differences, patterns)
Write down your own ideas first, then bring in sources to support, develop, or challenge your own ideas – not just to summarise.
Practice paraphrasing by closing the source text and explaining the idea from memory; then compare with the original.
Follow your department’s citation guidelines consistently. (see Citation guidelines).
Take advantage of Information seeking classes at the Open Science Centre or get familiar with the Library Tutorial guide for information seeking of JYU.
Use AI tools to locate potential academic sources, but always verify accuracy and only use sources you have personally checked. (see instructions)
If you remain unsure, ask your teacher or instructor for clarification.

How it may feel:

Text produced using AI may feel distant or disconnected from your own thinking.
You may be unsure how much you can trust content produced by AI, or you may fear plagiarism.
You are unsure whether you are using AI correctly and in an acceptable manner.
You wonder whether you are outsourcing your learning to AI and whether your own expertise and skills are developing.
You may be concerned that you are spending your valuable time on work that others can do using AI.

How to move forward:

Check in your course learning environment or ask your teacher or supervisor whether you can use AI to produce text. If AI can be used, check from the task instructions how it can be used to write the text in question.
AI applications can generally be used, for example, to generate ideas and drafts, structure text, conceptualize concepts, and support information retrieval. They provide raw content and source material that can inspire and help generate new ideas. However, remember that the final work requires your own input and further processing.
Always check the sources used by AI and ensure that the information is accurate. Only use sources that you are familiar with yourself.
Report the use of AI appropriately (see instructions).
Consider when it is necessary to use AI, and remember to continue practicing writing, argumentation, and text structuring yourself.
Familiarize yourself with the University of Jyväskylä's instructions and guidelines on the use of AI-based applications in studying.
Check out the AI in Learning page.
Study the AI as a Support for the AI as a Support for the Writing Process.
Study the use of AI: XYHX1011 AI in Study and Work Life Text Skills (3–4 credits)
If you are unsure or need help, contact your teacher or instructor.

How it may feel:

The topic or task feels too big or vague.
You don’t understand the instructions.
The unfinished task is often on your mind.
You know you should get started, but "not yet."
In the end, you write at the last minute, and you may feel that the text is not as good as you would have liked.

Academic writing assignments are usually so extensive that they cannot be written at one go. Be sure to reserve enough time for the writing process, since reading and writing in a second language often takes more time and effort than anticipated.

How to move forward:

Make sure you understand the instructions. If needed, ask other students, your teacher or your thesis supervisor
Pay attention to the verb in the task (e.g. summarise, synthesise, analyse, discuss), as it indicates what kind of text is expected
Start lightly; for example, by writing notes or a mind map
Make a realistic schedule by breaking the task into smaller parts and setting intermediate goals
Write regularly; even 10 minutes a day is enough to get started, and you can gradually increase your writing time
Don’t aim to produce a finished text immediately
Try free writing: write continuously for 5-10 minutes without stopping to correct language or structure. This helps generate ideas that you can refine later
You can also try a “thought walk”: go for a short walk and think about your topic, main message, and key points. You can record your ideas by speaking

How it may feel:

You can't really think of anything to say, and there isn't enough text.
The text is unfocused.
The ideas in the text don't fit together, and there doesn't seem to be a common thread.
You are not sure what you want to say.

How to move forward:

Plan before writing: decide what you want to say and why. First write down the main points of the text and then expand them into paragraphs. For example, you can start by writing one sentence about each main point and then elaborate on it. Then think about the order in which you want to present the information.
Draw a concept map of your text – you will notice structural gaps and overlaps as well as the relationships between different points. You will also see what you already know and what you need to find out more about.
Make sure each paragraph has one clear main idea (topic sentence), and that other sentences support it.
Check that each paragraph contributes to the overall purpose or argument of the text.
For example, you can give each paragraph a heading and write the headings as a list. Then compare whether the headings relate to the heading of the entire text or chapter and whether they form a clear structure. If the same heading appears in several places in the text, you can consider whether these paragraphs should be combined or whether one of them could be left out. If one paragraph has several headings, you may have included too much information in that paragraph. Check whether the same headings appear elsewhere in the text and consider whether the content of the paragraph could be moved there. Or does the paragraph need to be divided into several paragraphs?
Take a break and reread your text from the reader’s perspective: is the structure clear and logical?
Look at published academic texts for models
Ask for feedback (e.g. from other students, your teacher or supervisor, or AI) on structure and clarity (e.g. Is the order logical, are transitions clear, does the argument flow?)

How it may feel:

You are unsure whether your language skills are good enough for the task.
Your text feels inferior to others'.
You fear the feedback or grade from your teacher or instructor.
You feel like a "fraud" and don't feel capable of writing "academic text."

How to move forward:

Remember that writing is a skill that develops with practice.
Make sure you understand the purpose of the writing assignment. Often the purpose is not to produce a perfect text but to advance your own understanding of the topic by writing about it.
Focus on your own learning, don't compare yourself unnecessarily. Everyone has their own writing path, and a finished text does not reveal anything about the versions that preceded it.
Ask for feedback during the process. Constructive feedback on unfinished text is more helpful than an evaluation of the finished text. Also, think about what kind of feedback you need and tell the person giving feedback: What has been on your mind while working on the text? Where would you like to hear the reader's perspective? When receiving feedback, it is good to remember that you are now getting advice on how to work on your unfinished text.

How it may feel:

It is difficult to start writing because it has to be "perfect" right away.
You always want to get the best possible grade.
Every sentence feels wrong, and you end up endlessly refining the same passage.
Writing takes time, and progress is slow because you are trying to make the text perfect and "complete" in one go.
The text never feels "finished," and you always find a new point that you could still correct or polish. Submitting the text keeps getting pushed back.

How to move forward:

Accept that the first draft can be unfinished. Writing is a process.
Try free writing: Write for 10 minutes without interruption. Don't stop. Write quickly but without rushing. Don't correct your text, just keep going, even if you notice a spelling mistake, for example.
Remember that academic writing develops through several drafts; no one writes a finished text in one go.
If you get stuck writing a certain section, start writing about something else or another section.
Create a realistic schedule for yourself, breaking the task down into smaller parts and setting intermediate goals.
Set a clear deadline for your work: choose a day and time when you will submit the text, even if it doesn't feel perfect.
Try to write regularly.
Take a few days' break from writing before finalizing your text and make yourself a to-do list for the final touches. Decide that you will go through the text from each perspective on the list and then you will no longer edit your text. Taking a short break before finalizing your work will help you see more easily which parts really need refinemen
When finalizing your text, ask yourself: "Do these changes really add value to the text?" If the answer is no, move on.
Remind yourself of the purpose of writing and the text: is the goal perfection, or is it to learn and grow your expertise?
Reward yourself for submitting the text.

How it may feel:

Your thoughts are not flowing, and writing feels overwhelming.
Your mind is preoccupied with other things: studies, work, everyday matters.
Unfinished tasks are weighing on your mind.
You have trouble sleeping.

How to move forward:

Create a specific time and place for writing.
Eliminate unnecessary distractions: silence your phone notifications and set aside a quiet space for working.
Take breaks – even a short walk can help you organize your thoughts.
Remember to sleep, eat, and rest. They support thinking and creativity.
Take a moment to care for yourself. This is a short, limited time when you write down the things that are on your mind and decide to return to them later. For example, choose 10 minutes, write down your concerns without feeling compelled to find solutions, and close the list when the time is up. This will free up space for concentration and prevent your worries from distracting you from your work.
Contact your teacher and explain your situation. If necessary, also contact Goodies or Finnish Student Health Service.

Courses at Movi to support your academic writing

In Movi's courses, you will learn about the types of texts written in the scientific community and how and why they are produced. In many courses you will have the opportunity to discuss academic writing issues with others and get feedback on your writing.

Deepen your English skills with optional study modules

Courses at Movi to aid your studies

Further reading on the Academic study skills website

The use of AI-based applications in studies at Movi - Guidelines

Dealing with academic misconduct

Rector’s decision on ethical guidelines for studying and the handling of academic misconduct at the University of Jyväskylä (21.8.2023).

Academic writing

Characteristics of academic and scientific texts

1. Academic writing is part of scholarly conversation

2. Argumentation consists of claims based on evidence and clear reasoning

3. Academic writing relies on transparent and ethical use of sources

4. Texts follow a predictable structure

5. Language is precise, neutral, and reader-oriented

Study-related text types at JYU

Writing study-related texts as a process

Writing together with others

Peer feedback

Common writing challenges – and how to overcome them

1. Challenge: Writing in academic English

2. Challenge: Using sources

3. Challenge: Using AI effectively and responsibly

4. Challenge: Getting started

5. Challenge: Structuring your text

6. Challenge: Comparing yourself to others

7. Challenge: Perfectionism

8. Challenge: Managing workload

Courses at Movi to support your academic writing

Academic study skills

Reading academic texts

Instructions for written tasks

Using AI-based applications in studies - JYU’s instructions and guidelines

The use of AI-based applications in studies at Movi - Guidelines

Dealing with academic misconduct